Sleep is defined on the basis of behavioural and physiological criteria dividing it into two states: non rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep which is subdivided into three stages (N1, N2, N3); and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, muscle atonia and desynchronized EEG. Circadian rhythm of sleep-wakefulness is controlled by the master clock located in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus. The neuroanatomical substrates of the NREM sleep are located principally in the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus and those of REM sleep are located in pons. A variety of significant physiological changes occur in all body systems and organs during sleep as a result of functional alterations in the autonomic and somatic nervous systems. The international classification of sleep disorders (ICSD, ed 2) lists eight categories of sleep disorders along with appendix A and appendix B. The four major sleep complaints include excessive daytime sleepiness, insomnia, abnormal movements or behaviour during sleep and inability to sleep at the desired time. The most important step in assessing a patient with a sleep complaint is obtaining a detailed history including family and previous histories, medical, psychiatric, neurological, drug, alcohol and substance abuse disorders. Some important laboratory tests for investigating sleep disorders consist of an overnight polysomnography, multiple sleep latency and maintenance of wakefulness tests as well as actigraphy. General physicians should have a basic knowledge of the salient clinical features of common sleep disorders, such as insomnia, obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome, narcolepsy-cataplexy syndrome, circadian rhythm sleep disorders (e.g., jet leg, shift work disorder, etc.) and parasomnias (e.g., partial arousal disorders, REM behaviour disorder, etc.) and these are briefly described in this chapter. The principle of treatment of sleep disorders is first to find cause of the sleep disturbance and vigorously treat the co-morbid conditions causing the sleep disturbance. If a satisfactory treatment is not available for the primary condition or does not resolve the problem, the treatment should be directed at the specific sleep disturbance. Most sleep disorders, once diagnosed, can be managed with limited consultations. The treatment of primary sleep disorders, however, is best handled by a sleep specialist. An overview of sleep and sleep disorders viz., Basic science; international classification and approach; and phenomenology of common sleep disorders are presented.

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Nearly half of older adults report difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep. With age, several changes occur that can place one at risk for sleep disturbance including increased prevalence of medical conditions, increased medication use, age-related changes in various circadian rhythms, and environmental and lifestyle changes. Although sleep complaints are common among all age groups, older adults have increased prevalence of many primary sleep disorders including sleep-disordered breathing, periodic limb movements in sleep, restless legs syndrome, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behaviour disorder, insomnia, and circadian rhythm disturbances. The present review discusses age-related changes in sleep architecture, aetiology, presentation, and treatment of sleep disorders prevalent among the elderly and other factors relevant to ageing that are likely to affect sleep quality and quantity.

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Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is increasingly being recognized as an important health issue in the last two to three decades. It is characterized by frequent episodes of upper airway collapse during sleep, causing recurrent arousals, intermittent hypoxaemia, sleep fragmentation and poor sleep quality. There is accumulating evidence that OSA is being considered as an independent risk factor for hypertension, glucose intolerance / diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases and stroke, leading to increased cardiometabolic morbidity and mortality. The prevalence rates of OSA have been estimated in the range of 2 to 10 per cent worldwide, and the risk factors for obstructive sleep apnoea include advanced age, male sex, obesity, family history, craniofacial abnormalities, smoking and alcohol consumption. The common clinical presenting symptoms are heavy snoring, witnessed apnoeas and daytime hypersomnolence, which would help to identify the affected individuals. With increasing awareness of this disease entity and associated complications in our society, there have been increased referrals to sleep physicians or expertise for further investigations and diagnostic evaluation. Early recognition and treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea may prevent from adverse health consequences. Some of the epidemiological aspects of obstructive sleep apnoea in adults are reviewed.

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Sleep disordered breathing (SDB) is increasingly being recognised as a cause of morbidity even in young children. With an estimated prevalence of 1 to 4 per cent, SDB results from having a structurally narrow airway combined with reduced neuromuscular tone and increased airway collapsibility. SDB in children differs from adults in a number of ways, including presenting symptoms and treatment. Presentation may differ according to the age of the child. Children have a more varied presentation from snoring and frequent arousals to enuresis to hyperactivity. Those with Down syndrome, midface hypoplasia or neuromuscular disorders are at higher risk for developing SDB. First line definitive treatment in children involves tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy. Rapid maxillary expansion, allergy treatment and continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) are other options. As untreated SDB results in complications as learning difficulties, memory loss and a long term increase in risk of hypertension, depression and poor growth, it is important to diagnose SDB.

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The evaluation of the upper airway (UA) includes the physical examination of pharyngeal structures and a number of imaging techniques that vary from the mostly used lateral cephalometry and computed tomography to more sophisticated methods such as tri-dimensional magnetic resonance image (MRI). Other complex techniques addressing UA collapsibility assessed by measurement of pharyngeal critical pressure and negative expiratory pressure however are not routinely performed. These methods provide information about anatomic abnormalities and the level of pharyngeal narrowing or collapse while the patient is awake or asleep. Data suggest that individual patients have different patterns of UA narrowing. So, the best method for evaluating obstruction during obstructive events remains controversial. In general, in clinical practice physical examination including a systematic evaluation of facial morphology, mouth, nasal cavity and the pharynx as well as simple imaging techniques such as nasopharyngoscopy and cephalometry have been more routinely utilized. Findings associated with obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) are UA narrowing by the lateral pharyngeal walls and enlargements of tonsils, uvula and tongue. Additionally cephalometry identifies the most significant craniofacial characteristics associated with this disease. MRI studies demonstrated that lateral narrowing of UA in OSA is due to parapharyngeal muscle hypertrophy and/or enlargement of non adipose soft tissues. The upper airway evaluation has indubitably contributed to understand the pathophysiology and the diagnosis of OSA and snoring. Additionally, it also helps to identify the subjects with increased OSA risk as well as to select the more appropriate modality of treatment, especially for surgical procedures.

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Narcolepsy is a neurologic illness that typically begins in the second and third decades of life. It is chronic in nature and negatively impacts the quality of life of affected patients. The classic presentation is a tetrad of excessive daytime sleepiness, cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic hallucinations. The exact cause remains unknown, but there is significant evidence that hypocretin deficiency plays an integral role. Some primary conditions that result in secondary narcolepsy include traumatic brain injury, congenital disorders, tumours, and strokes. Some medical and psychiatric disorders share characteristics of narcolepsy, at times leading to diagnostic inaccuracy. Other sleep disorders are commonly co-morbid. Diagnosis relies on patient history and objective data gathered from polysomnography and multiple sleep latency testing. Treatment focuses on symptom relief through medication, education, and behavioural modification. Both classic pharmacological treatments as well as newer options have significant problems, especially because of side effects and abuse potential. Novel modalities are being examined to expand options for treatment.

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Nocturnal hypoventilation is a common feature of disorders affecting the function of the diaphragm or central respiratory drive mechanisms. The ensuing change in gas exchange is initially confined to rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, but over time buffering of the raised carbon dioxide produces a secondary depression of respiratory drive that will further reduce ventilation not only during sleep but eventually during wakefulness as well. Failure to identify and treat nocturnal hypoventilation results in impairments in daytime function, quality of life and premature mortality. While some simple daytime tests of respiratory function can identify at risk individuals, these cannot predict the nature or severity of any sleep disordered breathing present. Nocturnal monitoring of gas exchange with or without full polysomnography is the only way to comprehensively assess this disorder, especially in the early stages of its evolution. Non invasive ventilation used during sleep is the most appropriate approach to reverse the consequences of nocturnal hypoventilation, although continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) may be effective in those individuals where a significant degree of upper airway obstruction is present. When appropriately selected patients use therapy on a regular basis, significant improvements in quality of life, exercise capacity and survival can be achieved, irrespective of the underlying disease process.

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Circadian rhythm sleep disorders are common conditions manifested as misalignment between the sleep period and the physical/social 24-h environmental cycle. Delayed sleep phase (typical in adolescents) and advanced sleep phase (frequent in the elderly), situations in which the sleep period is displaced to a later or earlier time, respectively, are the two most prevalent circadian rhythm sleep disorders. There are, however, nine possible diagnoses of clinical interest. Since light is the main cue used in synchronizing the biological clock, blind individuals and night-shift/rotating-shift workers are more prone to develop circadian rhythm sleep disorders. In this article, the circadian rhythm syndromes included in the new International Classification of Sleep Disorders are reviewed as well as the most recent guidelines for diagnosis and treatment.

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Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) affects 11 per cent of pre-menopausal women though it often remains undetected. Women may present differently than men, and the classic findings of snoring, witnessed apnoeas and sleepiness may not be observed. Factors which predispose to OSA include polycystic ovarian syndrome, obesity, retromicrognathia, and hypothyroidism. OSA may contribute to neurocognitive dysfunction, depression, hypertension and metabolic syndrome. Emerging evidence indicates that snoring and OSA increase during pregnancy. For normal women with normotensive, low-risk pregnancies the prevalence of OSA is very low. Among normotensive pregnant women with high risk pregnancies, the prevalence of OSA is high and is even higher among those with gestational hypertension/preeclampsia during pregnancy. Incident snoring, which is a marker for OSA, is associated with an increased risk of developing gestational hypertension. Recent studies indicate that OSA per se is an independent risk factor for gestational hypertension/pre-eclampsia and may contribute to other poor obstetrical outcomes. The diagnostic test of choice for OSA is a polysomnography with electroencephalogram. Milder degree of disease than what is usually considered clinically significant among men or non-pregnant women appears to be relevant for foetomaternal outcomes. There seems to be benefit for blood pressure control to treating even milder degrees of OSA with CPAP, both acutely and over the 9 months of pregnancy. Chronic hypertensive women should be strongly considered for diagnosis and treatment of OSA prior to or beginning as early as possible in pregnancy to help maintain blood pressure control. Increasing awareness of OSA among maternal health care providers is important given the potential benefits for pregnancy and other health-related outcomes associated with identification and treatment of OSA.

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There is a paucity of published Indian studies on the prevalence and risk factors of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) in adults. The limited published literature, however, does not suggest significant differences in the prevalence and risk factors for OSA and obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS) as compared to western studies. Well designed studies are required from all parts of India. Patients should be screened carefully before referring them to costly investigations such as overnight polysomnography. With the background of increasing urbanization, fast growing economy and changes in lifestyle, India will have an epidemic of obesity. Therefore, future studies on the association of OSA and metabolic syndrome should carefully evaluate confounding effect of obesity on metabolic abnormalities in patients with OSA.

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Insomnia is a highly prevalent sleep disorder that frequently occurs in its acute form and occurs at a rate of approximately 10 per cent in its chronic form in many countries. There is a high prevalence of insomnia in a variety of medical and psychiatric conditions for which insomnia often serves as a risk factor. The aetiology and pathophysiology of insomnia is such that several factors may predispose individuals for or precipitate and/or perpetuate the condition. Both sedative-hypnotic and cognitivebehavioural interventions exist for insomnia and each type of intervention have substantial levels of empirical support for their efficacy.

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Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is a form of sleep disordered breathing with a high prevalence rate and is often underdiagnosed. OSA is associated with hypertension, coronary artery disease, stroke, peripheral vascular disease, heart failure, and arrhythmias. The presence of OSA may be a strong predictor of fatal cardiovascular events in patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD). Increased sympathetic drive, activation of metabolic and inflammatory markers, and impaired vascular function are some of the proposed mechanisms that could explain the association between OSA and cardiovascular diseases. Understanding these mechanisms is important for identifying treatment strategies. The presence of OSA should be considered in clinical practice, especially in patients with CVD. Randomized intervention studies are needed to establish whether early identification and treatment of OSA patients reduces cardiovascular morbidity.

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Adherence to continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment for obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is a critical problem. Poor adherence (30-60%) to CPAP is widely recognized as a significant limiting factor in treating OSA, reducing the overall effectiveness of the treatment and leaving many OSA patients at heightened risk for co-morbid conditions, impaired function and quality of life. The extant literature examining adherence to CPAP provides critical insight to measuring adherence outcomes, defining optimal adherence levels, and predicting CPAP adherence. This research has revealed salient factors that are associated with or predict CPAP adherence and may guide the development of interventions to promote CPAP adherence. Over the past 10 years, intervention studies to promote CPAP adherence have incorporated a multitude of strategies including education, support, cognitive behavioural approaches, and mixed strategies. This review of the current status of research on CPAP adherence will (i) synthesize the extant literature with regard to measuring, defining, and predicting CPAP adherence; (ii) review published intervention studies aimed at promoting CPAP adherence; and (iii) suggest directions for future empiric study of adherence to CPAP that will have implications for translational science. Our current understanding of CPAP adherence suggests that adherence is a multi-factorial, complex clinical problem that requires similarly designed approaches to effectively address poor CPAP adherence in the OSA population.

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The prevalence of sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) in the advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) patient population has been estimated to be more than 50 per cent. SDB is associated with episodic upper airway obstruction or cessation of breathing during sleep leading to repetitive episodes of hypoxaemia, hypercapnia, and sleep fragmentation, activation of the sympathetic nervous system, endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Clinical consequences of this disorder may include excessive daytime sleepiness, depressed mood, cognitive impairment, hypertension, as well as increased risk for cardiovascular disease and metabolic dysregulation. SDB may also contribute substantially to the daytime sleepiness, poor quality of life, and high rate of cardiovascular disease in CKD patients. Although the causal links between CKD and SDB remain speculative, there are multiple factors related to fluid overload and azotaemia that may contribute to the increased propensity to SDB. Renal transplantation, nocturnal automated peritoneal dialysis and nocturnal haemodialysis have been found to be associated with a reduction in the severity of SDB when compared to conventional forms of dialysis. Nocturnal dialysis modalities may facilitate further understanding of the pathophysiology of SDB as well as provide therapeutic alternatives for patients with both kidney failure and SDB. SDB is an important but often overlooked public health problem in the CKD patient population. Early diagnosis and treatment of SDB may provide better quality of life and attenuate the cardiovascular risk of morbidity and mortality in these patients.

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Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the treatment of choice for obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS). However, CPAP is not tolerated by all patients with OSAS and alternative modes of pressure delivery have been developed to overcome pressure intolerance, thereby improving patient comfort and adherence. Auto-adjustable positive airway pressure (APAP) devices may be utilised for the long-term management of OSAS and may also assist in the initial diagnosis of OSAS and titration of conventional CPAP therapy. Newer modalities such as C-Flex and A-Flex also show promise as treatment options in the future. However, the evidence supporting the use of these alternative modalities remains scant, in particular with regard to long-term cardiovascular outcomes. In addition, not all APAP devices use the same technological algorithms and data supporting individual APAP devices cannot be extrapolated to support all. Further studies are required to validate the roles of APAP, C-Flex and A-Flex. In the interim, standard CPAP therapy should continue as the mainstay of OSAS management.

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Central sleep apnoea (CSA) is characterized by the cessation of breathing during sleep due to absent ventilatory drive and may be associated with symptoms of insomnia, excessive daytime sleepiness or frequent arousals. Central apnoeas occur through two pathophysiologic patterns, either post- hyperventilation or post-hypoventilation. The prevalence of CSA is dependent on the population being studied, the predominant risk factors being elderly age group and co-morbid conditions.Data regarding the racial distribution of this disorder are very limited. CSA may be a clinical marker of underlying medical disorders, including cardiac or neurological disease, with resultant significant morbidity and mortality. Given that the underlying pathogenesis remains poorly understood, therapeutic options are currently limited to empiric treatment with PAP devices and rudimentary attempts at pharmacologic therapy with respiratory stimulant drugs and/or oxygen/carbon dioxide gas supplementation as well as treating the underlying cause. The long-term impact of CSA on health and mortality needs further clarification. Future research should be aimed at elucidating the physiologic determinants and consequences of central breathing instability in populations of different age groups, gender and racial descent, as a prerequisite to the development of novel therapeutic interventions in the different populations.

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Parasomnias are abnormal experiences or behaviours that occur during sleep and can be subdivided into disorders of arousal, disorders of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep or other parasomnias. Diagnosis rests on a thorough clinical evaluation with supporting data from a full polysomnography with time synchronized video. While the prognosis for arousal disorders is generally excellent, the diagnosis of REM behaviour disorder (RBD) is more ominous and associated with neurodegenerative disorders, and as such, requires routine neurological surveillance. The cornerstone of treatment for all parasomnias is adequate patient and bed partner education. Data supporting pharmacologic therapy are limited but clonazapam for RBD has been reported to be effective in up to 89 per cent of patients.

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A plethora of medical consequences have been associated with the syndrome of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA). These are global, affecting nearly every body function, and have been related to two key pathophysiological findings in sleep apnoea: repetitive falls in oxyhaemoglobin saturation during sleep, and recurrent arousals from sleep which terminate apnoea episodes. Sufferers of OSA may experience daytime sleepiness, which has been measured both subjectively using the Epworth Sleepiness Scale and the Stanford Sleepiness Scale, but also objectively, using Multiple Sleep Latency Testing, Maintenance of Wakefulness testing, and the Oxford Sleep Resistance test. In addition to the loss of alertness, sleep apnoea contributes to memory deficits, reduced vigilance, impaired executive function, increased risk for automobile and occupational accidents, and decreased quality of life.Importantly, afflicted individuals experience improvements in these outcomes with treatment. Taken together, this evidence forms a compelling basis to identify and treat latent cases of sleep apnoea. Not only do patients have the opportunity to achieve improvements in these outcomes and health-related quality of life, but the enormous economic burden that untreated apnoea imposes on the health care system may be eased.

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Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is a highly prevalent condition with proven neurocognitive and cardiovascular consequences. OSA patients experience repetitive narrowing or collapse of the pharyngeal airway during sleep. Multiple factors likely underlie the pathophysiology of this condition with considerable inter-individual variation. Important risk factors for OSA include obesity, male gender, and ageing. However, the mechanisms underlying these major risk factors are not well understood. We briefly review the state-of-the-art knowledge regarding OSA pathogenesis in adults and highlight the potential role of genetics in influencing key OSA pathophysiological traits.

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Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is a prevalent disorder with significant co-morbidities. Presently only rarely, treatments for obstructive sleep apnoea are curative. More typically, this is a disease that requires lifelong intervention and commitment from both the patients and healthcare providers. In light of the commitments, there is no uniform approach to treating sleep apnoea. Rather, approach to treatment of OSA should be governed by disease severity, symptoms and health risk and by which approach will work best for in a specific patient. It is equally important to identify and treat contributors to obstructive sleep apnoea severity, including obesity and endocrine disorders. In this sense, treating the patient with obstructive sleep apnoea requires a long-term partnership between patient and sleep medicine healthcare providers. With a strong partnership, obstructive sleep apnoea may be effectively treated in growing numbers of patients.

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Rather than describing a method for determining which patients should be labelled as having a disease, sleep apnoea, this review describes assessment as a process for deciding whom to investigate, what degree of sleep apnoea they have, how important their symptoms are, whether symptoms are likely attributable to sleep apnoea, and what sort of treatment to offer, if any. Beginning with identifying patients at risk and use of clinical prediction rules, the review covers (i) measurement and implications of the apnoeahypopnoea index; (ii) distinguishing central from obstructive apnoeas; (iii) significance of associated periodic limb movements; (iv) the controversy about the use of portable monitors instead of laboratory polysomnography; (v) evaluation of symptoms associated with sleep apnoea; and (vi) the important role of trials of treatment.

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Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) syndrome is a potentially serious disorder affecting millions of people around the world. Many of these individuals are undiagnosed while those who are diagnosed, often exhibit poor compliance with nightly use of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), a very effective nonsurgical treatment. Various surgical procedures have been proposed to manage and, in some cases, treat OSA. In this article we review methods used to assess the sites of obstruction and a number of surgical procedures designed to address OSA. Effective surgical management of OSA depends upon developing a complete database and determining different levels of obstruction, which may include nasal, nasopharyngeal, oropharyngeal, and hypopharyngeal/retrolingual, or a combination of these sites. A systematic approach to clinical evaluation, treatment planning and surgical management is recommended and is likely to result in more predictable outcomes. Surgical treatment may involve various procedures that are performed in different stages depending on the patient's sites of obstruction. The most commonly performed procedures include nasal reconstruction, uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP), advancement genioplasty, mandibular osteotomy with genioglossus advancement, and hyoid myotomy and suspension. In more severe cases, maxillomandibular advancement (MMA) with advancement genioplasty may be indicated. Even after appropriate surgical treatment, some patients may demonstrate continued obstruction with associated symptoms. Published indications for surgical treatment include an elevated respiratory disturbance index (RDI) with excessive daytime somnolence (EDS), oxygen desaturations below 90 per cent, medical co-morbidities including hypertension and arrhythmias, anatomic abnormalities of the upper airway and failure of medical treatment. The success of surgery in OSA is generally measured by achieving a (RDI) of less than 5, improvement of oxygen nadir to 90 per cent or more with no desaturations below 90 per cent and quality of life improvements with elimination or significant reduction of OSA symptoms. From a practical point of view, achieving these goals may be extremely difficult without patients' cooperation, most notably in the realm of weight loss and maintenance of a healthy lifestyle.

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Sleep is an essential part of our daily living, and sleep disturbances may intervene with the biological and physiological processes in human body leading to the development of metabolic dysfunction. Short sleep duration and poor sleep quality have adverse effects on metabolism and hormonal processes, contributing to increased cardiovascular risk. Obstructive sleep apnoea is a chronic condition characterized by repetitive upper airway collapse during sleep, causing intermittent hypoxaemia, recurrent arousals and sleep fragmentation. Sleep disturbances can increase sympathetic activity, provoke systemic inflammation and oxidative stress, and impair vascular endothelial function. Obstructive sleep apnoea is increasingly recognized to be an independent cardiovascular risk factor. There is intense research interest in the association between obstructive sleep apnoea and the metabolic syndrome - the constellation of inter-related metabolic derangements including central obesity, hypertension, insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia, which appears to directly promote the development of atherosclerosis. The underlying pathophysiologic pathways or mechanistic links between obstructive sleep apnoea and metabolic syndrome have not been well delineated. This article reviews the current knowledge of the relationship between sleep disturbances, sleep-disordered breathing and the metabolic syndrome in adults.

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